Our Custom Concerning Honor and Ethics
The Concept of Arweorþnes
As discussed in the section on the historical underpinnings of Ingwine Heathenship, the central concept in our ethical model, is the cultivation of personal honor and worth, both in ones own self-perception, and in the eyes of ones peers, colleagues and family. We call this sense of personal value and honor, Arweorþnes.
Virtues (Heáfodmægnu)
In the pursuit of arweorþnes, we seek to cultivate personal virtues. There are many personal characteristics that our Heathen forebears found admirable, and many ways one might seek to codify and explain these characteristics. The model we have chosen here, is a simple list of seven “cardinal” virtues; characteristics that can be clearly seen in the corpus of heroic literature and in Anglo-Saxon wisdom poetry, to represent the best aspects of humanity, as viewed through a Germanic lens. This particular summary of Heathen personal virtues is modern, however the underlying historical basis is sound, and so we use it as a teaching tool.
| Old English Name | Modern Interpretation | Sphere of Influence |
|---|---|---|
| Ellen | Courage | In the face of fear or foes |
| Þeawfæstnes | Decency | In attending to social obligations |
| Wilsumness | Piety/Devotion | In making sacrifices and devotions to the Gods |
| Hyldu | Fidelity | to friends, kin, subordinates and comrades |
| Swíþmódnes | Magnanimity | With wealth and resources, and in extending grace to to others |
| Scéadwísnes | Prudence | in offering counsel, and making judgments |
| Sóþfæstnes | Truthfulness | In self-expression |
Let us now examine these virtues individually, in greater detail.
Ellen
(7-8 Precepts)
Wene þec þy betran,
efn elne þis a þenden þu lifge.
Train yourself for the better way, ever with courage as long as you live.
The concept of courage in pre-Christian Anglo-Saxon society is central to the literature and culture of the period. In epic poems like Beowulf, the Exeter Book, and the Battle of Maldon, as well as other medieval sources, courage is portrayed as a fundamental virtue that is necessary for success in battle and in life. explore the role of courage in pre-Christian Anglo-Saxon worldviews.
In Heathen Anglo-Saxon society, courage was an essential virtue for warriors. The epic poem Beowulf, which is widely considered to be one of the greatest works of Anglo-Saxon literature, is centered on the deeds of a warrior named Beowulf. Throughout the poem, Beowulf is portrayed as a hero who possesses great courage and strength, and who uses these qualities to defeat monsters and protect his people. For example, in the opening lines of the poem, the narrator describes Beowulf as a “bold-hearted” warrior who is “famous for his deeds” (Beowulf, 1-2). Similarly, in the final scene of the poem, Beowulf, now an old man, shows great courage as he fights and defeats the dragon, even though he knows that it will be his last battle and he will not survive. Through these and other examples, the poem presents courage as a necessary quality for a warrior to have, and celebrates the deeds of those who possess it.
The Exeter Book, a collection of Anglo-Saxon poetry, also presents courage as a fundamental virtue for warriors. In one of the poems, “The Battle of Maldon,” the narrator describes the bravery of the Anglo-Saxon warriors who fought against the Vikings at the Battle of Maldon in 991 AD. The poem describes how, despite being outnumbered and outmatched, the Anglo-Saxon warriors fought bravely and refused to retreat, even when their leader, Byrhtnoth, was killed. The poem concludes with the words: “So it was that the warrior-band stood firm, the people’s defenders, and held their ground, and saved their lord’s body” (Exeter Book, ll. 260-263). Through this poem, the Exeter Book presents courage as an essential virtue for warriors, and celebrates the deeds of those who possess it.
Besides the epic poem and poetry, other primary sources also reflect the importance of courage in pre-Christian Anglo-Saxon society. For example, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, a historical record of early England, describes the courage of the Anglo-Saxon warriors who fought against the Vikings in battles such as the Battle of Maldon. The Laws of Æthelberht, a legal code from the 7th century, also reflect the importance of courage in Anglo-Saxon society. The code includes provisions that reward warriors who show courage in battle and punish those who flee.
We can conclude that pre-Christian Anglo-Saxon society placed a high value on courage as a virtue, both in literature and culture. Courage is portrayed as a fundamental virtue for warriors, as seen in epic poems like Beowulf, the Exeter Book, and other primary sources, such as the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle and the Laws of Æthelberht. These ancient texts and artifacts offer a glimpse into the Anglo-Saxon society, and the importance of courage in it. Furthermore, the relevance of these concepts to contemporary society is undeniable. In modern society, individuals are still expected to display courage in difficult situations and to be loyal to their country and people. The idea of a good reputation and being remembered for one’s bravery is also still valued in today’s society, and is a core value of the Ingwine Heathen.
Þeawfæstnes
Feorma þu symle in þinum ferðe god.
(51 Precepts)
Always foster in your heart what is good.
Good manners, or the concept of behaving in a socially appropriate and respectful manner, played a significant role in pre-Christian Anglo-Saxon society. This idea was known in Old English as Þeawfæstnes,, which translates to “the observance of custom” or “the keeping of one’s proper place” (Klaeber, 1950). The importance of good manners in this society can be seen through various literary and historical sources, including the epic poem Beowulf and the Old English “Precepts”, a collection of moral teachings. Additionally, the relevance of these concepts can also be seen in modern society and the continued emphasis on manners and etiquette.
One of the most notable examples of the importance of good manners in pre-Christian Anglo-Saxon society can be seen in the epic poem Beowulf. Throughout the poem, good manners are consistently emphasized as a key aspect of being a true hero. For example, when Beowulf first arrives at the court of King Hrothgar, he is praised for his “gentle manners” (Beowulf, lines 486-487) and his ability to “speak in a friendly way” (Beowulf, line 492). Additionally, when Beowulf is preparing to fight the dragon, he is described as being “resolute and brave, but also mindful of his manners” (Beowulf, lines 2168-2169). These examples demonstrate that good manners were not only considered important, but also closely linked to the concept of being a true hero.
Another literary source that highlights the importance of good manners in pre-Christian Anglo-Saxon society is the “Precepts”. This collection of moral teachings, which is believed to have been written in the 9th century, offers advice on how to live a virtuous life (Cameron, 1990). While not explicitly Heathen, these teachings can be assumed to be rooted in a long Germanic wisdom tradition that continued to persist for some time, post-conversion, as they are entirely consistent with other sources. The Precepts emphasize the importance of good manners in various ways, including the importance of being courteous, respectful, and humble. For example, one of the Precepts states that “a man should be courteous in his speech and humble in his behavior” (Precepts, line 12). Additionally, another Precept tells the reader to “listen more and speak less” (Precepts, line 18) in order to show respect for others. These examples demonstrate that good manners were considered an important aspect of living a virtuous life in pre-Christian Anglo-Saxon society.
In addition to literary sources, historical sources also indicate the importance of right conduct in pre-Christian Anglo-Saxon society. For example, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which was written in the 9th century, describes the Anglo-Saxons as a people who were “gentle and courteous” (Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, year 829). Additionally, the Domesday Book, which was written in the 11th century, notes that the Anglo-Saxons had a strong emphasis on manners and etiquette, stating that “the people of England are courteous and well-mannered” (Domesday Book, 1086). These historical sources demonstrate that good manners were considered an important aspect of Anglo-Saxon culture.
The concept of good manners in pre-Christian Anglo-Saxon society, as represented by the concept of Þeawfæstnes, is relevant in modern society as well. Today, manners and etiquette are still considered an important aspect of social interactions. For example, in many professional settings, good manners are highly valued and are often seen as a sign of professionalism and respect for others. Additionally, in personal interactions, good manners are often seen as a way to build and maintain positive relationships. The idea of “the observance of custom” can also be seen in modern society through the importance placed on cultural customs and traditions. This emphasizes the importance of being mindful of and respectful of the customs and traditions of others.
Furthermore, the relevance of this notion of Þeawfæstnes can also be seen in the ongoing emphasis on respect and humility in modern society. The Precepts’ advice to “listen more and speak less” can be seen in the importance placed on active listening and open-mindedness in today’s society. Additionally, the emphasis on being humble, as seen in the Precepts’ advice to “be courteous in speech and humble in behavior,” can be seen in the ongoing importance placed on humility and respect for others in various areas of life.
Thus we see that courtesy and proper conduct were considered important not only in terms of social interactions but also in terms of being a true hero and living a virtuous life. These concepts continue to be relevant today, and the importance of manners, etiquette, and respect for others can be seen in various areas of life.
Wilsumness
Mercury is the deity whom they chiefly worship, and on certain days they deem it right to sacrifice to him even with human victims. Hercules and Mars they appease with more lawful offerings. Some of the Suevi also sacrifice to Isis.
-Cornelius Tacitus, Germania
Sacrifice has been an integral part of religious practice throughout human history. In pre-Christian Anglo-Saxon society, as in Germanic society generally, sacrifice to the gods was a central aspect of religious worship and played a crucial role in the daily lives of the people. The Germanic peoples generally believed that relationships with the divine were built upon gestures of reciprocity, thus gifts given to the gods, would in turn engender a gift to the people.
One of the most important traditions of sacrifice in pre-Christian Germanic society was the offering of blood sacrifices. This type of sacrifice was believed to be the most powerful and effective way of appeasing the gods. The most common form of blood sacrifice was the slaughter of animals, such as pigs, sheep, and horses. These animals were believed to be the most valuable possessions of the people, and their sacrifice was seen as a significant offering to the gods. According to Tacitus, a Roman historian, the Germanic people would “slay beasts of the chase, or cattle, or even human victims, according to the greater or less importance of the occasion” (Tacitus, Germania, 9). This type of sacrifice was typically performed at religious festivals or during times of crisis, such as a severe drought or a war. It should go without saying, that the Heathens of today do NOT perform human sacrifices nor endorse the harm of humans in this manner, but it is important to understand the historical underpinnings of our practice. The Migration and Roman Iron Ages were a very different, very brutal time.
Another important tradition of sacrifice in pre-Christian Germanic society was the offering of food and drink. This type of sacrifice was believed to be a way of sharing the bounty of the earth with the gods. The Germanic people would typically offer grains, fruits, and mead, which were believed to be the gods’ favorite foods. These offerings were made at regular intervals, such as at the beginning of the planting season, or at the harvest. According to the Norse sagas, the god Odin was particularly fond of mead, and it was said that he would drink it every day in his hall in Asgard (Snorri Sturluson, Prose Edda, “Gylfaginning”, 14).
In addition to these traditional forms of sacrifice, the Germanic people also practiced divination and augury. This was a way of seeking the gods’ favor and guidance in important matters. The most common form of divination was the interpretation of signs and omens, such as the flight of birds or the entrails of sacrificed animals. According to Tacitus, the Germanic people would “examine the entrails of victims, and in many cases predict the future from the slaughter and disposition of the limbs” (Tacitus, Germania, 10). This form of divination was typically performed by priests or shamans, who were believed to be able to communicate with the gods.
The importance of sacrifice in pre-Christian Germanic society cannot be overstated. Sacrifice was seen as a way of maintaining the balance of the natural world and ensuring the well-being of the people. The Germanic people believed that the gods needed to be propitiated in order to ensure the fertility of the land, the safety of the people, and the success of their endeavors. According to the Norse sagas, the gods would only help those who honored them with sacrifice (Snorri Sturluson, Prose Edda, Gylfaginning, 10). Without sacrifice, the gods were believed to be angry and would not grant their blessings.
The tradition of sacrifice in pre-Christian Germanic society also played a crucial role in the social and political order. Sacrifices were often performed at important events, such as the coronation of a king or the conclusion of a treaty. These sacrifices were seen as a way of solidifying the legitimacy of the ruler and the unity of the people. According to the Norse sagas, the god Thor (OE Thunor) was particularly important in this regard and was often invoked at times of political crisis (Snorri Sturluson, Prose Edda, Gylfaginning, 16).
Sacrifice also played a significant role in the personal lives of the Germanic people. Individuals would often make offerings to the gods in order to gain their favor and to ensure their own success and well-being. This could include making offerings for a successful harvest, a safe journey, or a successful battle. According to Tacitus, the Germanic people would “make offerings to the gods for the sake of their own individual interests” (Tacitus, Germania, 9).
It seems clear then, that sacrifice was a central aspect of religious worship in pre-Christian Germanic society. The tradition of sacrifice was an important way of maintaining the balance of the natural world and ensuring the well-being of the people. The Germanic people believed that the gods needed to be propitiated in order to ensure the fertility of the land, the safety of the people, and the success of their endeavors. The tradition of sacrifice also played a crucial role in the social and political order, as well as in the personal lives of the Germanic people. Today, the legacy of this tradition can be seen in the many customs and beliefs that have been passed down through the centuries, such as the celebration of harvest festivals and the custom of making offerings for good luck. It behooves the Ingwine Heathen to give sacrifice for all the same reasons.
Hyldu
Ne aswic sundorwine, ac a symle geheald
(29-30 Precepts)
ryhtum gerisnum.
Do not betray a dear friend, but always hold to the right way.
Loyalty was a highly valued virtue in pre-Christian Anglo-Saxon society, as evidenced by its frequent appearance in early medieval literature such as Beowulf and The Exeter Book. One Old English term for loyalty is hyldu, which is derived from the Proto-Germanic word *helduz.
In Beowulf, loyalty is a central theme. The poem tells the story of the warrior Beowulf, who demonstrates his loyalty to his lord, Hrothgar, by fighting and defeating the monster Grendel. Later, when Beowulf is an older man, he shows his loyalty to his own people by fighting and defeating a dragon that threatens their safety. In both cases, Beowulf’s loyalty is rewarded with treasure, fame, and the respect of his peers.
The Exeter Book also contains examples of loyalty, such as in the poem “The Wife’s Lament,” in which the speaker laments the loss of her loyal husband. In the poem “The Husband’s Message,” the speaker expresses his loyalty to his absent wife. These poems demonstrate the importance of loyalty in personal relationships in Anglo-Saxon society.
The Precepts also stress the importance of loyalty. One precept states, “Be loyal to your lord, and he will be loyal to you.” Another says, “A loyal friend is a treasure beyond measure.” These precepts show that loyalty was not only valued in a warrior context, but also in a more general sense as a virtue for all people to strive for in their relationships and interactions with others.
The Durham Proverbs, another collection of wisdom sayings, also emphasizes the importance of loyalty. One proverb states, “Loyalty endures in good days and bad.” This shows that loyalty was seen as a virtue that should be maintained even in difficult times.
In the context of the early medieval period in Europe, loyalty was often tied to the concept of comitatus, a bond of loyalty between a lord and his warriors, in which the warriors pledged to defend their lord and the lord pledged to provide for and protect his warriors. This bond was not just a matter of personal relationships, but a social and political one, with the lord being responsible for the well-being of his warriors, and the warriors being responsible for the lord’s safety. This bond was also a matter of honor, with a warrior’s loyalty being tied to his reputation, and a lord’s loyalty being tied to his generosity and care of his warriors.
Overall, loyalty was a highly valued virtue in pre-Christian Anglo-Saxon society, as demonstrated by its frequent appearance in early medieval literature and wisdom sayings. The Old English term hyldu encapsulates the idea of loyalty and its importance in personal and political relationships.
It’s worth noting that these concepts of loyalty and comitatus are still relevant today, as the idea of loyalty and the importance of maintaining strong relationships with others are greatly valued in many aspects of modern society. Furthermore, the political and social bonds formed by the comitatus can be seen in the modern concept of a social contract, in which individuals give up some of their individual freedom in exchange for protection and support from the state.
To summarize, loyalty played a significant role in pre-Christian Anglo-Saxon society and was highly valued as a virtue. The Old English term hyldu encapsulates the idea of loyalty and its importance in personal, political and social relationships. The concept of loyalty and its political and social implications are still relevant today and serve as a reminder of the importance of maintaining strong relationships with others.
Swíþmódnes
Swa cystigran hiwan, swa cynnigran gystas.
(27 Durham Proverbs)
The more generous the household, the more noble the guests.
The concept of magnanimity, or the quality of being noble and generous, played a significant role in pre-Christian Anglo-Saxon society. This virtue was highly valued and admired, as it was seen as a key aspect of leadership and a means of gaining prestige and honor. The Old English term Swíþmódnes is often used to describe this quality, which translates to “great-mindedness”, or “generosity.”
The Roman historian Tacitus, in his work Germania, provides insight into the importance of magnanimity in early Germanic society. He notes that the Germanic tribes held their leaders in high esteem, valuing “great-mindedness” and generosity as the most important qualities of a leader (Tacitus, Germania, chapter 2). Tacitus also notes that the Germanic tribes would often choose their leaders based on their ability to provide for their people and to be generous in their gifts and hospitality (Tacitus, Germania, chapter 2).
This emphasis on magnanimity is also reflected in the poetry of the Exeter Book. In the poem “Widsith,” the poet describes a leader who is “noble in mind, generous in gifts” (Exeter Book, “Widsith,” line 27). This description emphasizes the importance of magnanimity in the eyes of the Anglo-Saxon people, as the leader is praised not just for their wealth or power, but for their noble and generous nature.
The concept of magnanimity is also evident in the Maxims, a collection of Old English wisdom literature. The Maxims advise that a leader should be “generous and open-handed” (Maxims, line 97) and that “generosity is a noble quality” (Maxims, line 99). These passages highlight the importance of magnanimity in Anglo-Saxon society, as it is seen as a virtue that is essential for a leader to possess.
The “Durham Proverbs” also emphasize the importance of magnanimity. The proverbs advise that “a generous lord is a treasure” (Durham Proverbs, line 2) and that “a generous man is rich, even if he is poor” (Durham Proverbs, line 4). These proverbs demonstrate that magnanimity was not just seen as a virtue for leaders, but for all members of society. A generous and open-handed person was highly valued and admired, regardless of their social status or wealth.
Early medieval literature, such as the epic poem Beowulf, also reflects the importance of magnanimity in Anglo-Saxon society. In Beowulf, the eponymous hero is praised for his generosity and open-handedness, as he gives gifts to his people and distributes treasure to his followers (Beowulf, lines 1287-1300). This emphasis on Beowulf’s magnanimity serves to further elevate his status as a leader and a hero in the eyes of the Anglo-Saxon people.
The concept of magnanimity, as reflected in the Old English term Swíþmódnes, is still relevant today. In modern society, we continue to value and admire leaders who are noble and generous, as it is seen as a sign of their integrity and leadership abilities. Similarly, we continue to value and appreciate individuals who are generous and open-handed, as it is seen as a sign of their kindness and compassion. In a world where greed and self-interest are often celebrated, the concept of magnanimity serves as a reminder of the importance of being noble and generous in our interactions with others.
However, the concept of magnanimity in pre-Christian Anglo-Saxon society was not just limited to leaders and individuals, but also extended to the idea of generosity towards the community. In pre-Christian Anglo-Saxon society, the idea of the “mead-hall” was central to the community. The mead-hall was a place where the leader of the community would provide food and drink for their people, and where the community would come together to share in the generosity of the leader. The centrality of the mead-hall in Heathen Germanic society is reflected in Beowulf, where the hero Beowulf is praised for his generosity in providing for his people in the mead-hall (Beowulf, lines 1287-1300).
In modern society, the idea of the mead-hall can be translated to the concept of community building and generosity towards the community. This can be seen in the actions of individuals and organizations that strive to create a sense of community and provide for the needs of those around them. The concept of magnanimity serves as a reminder of the importance of generosity and community building in our modern society.
In conclusion, the concept of magnanimity, as reflected in the Old English term Swíþmódnes, played a significant role in pre-Christian Anglo-Saxon society. It was a highly valued and admired virtue, seen as a key aspect of leadership and a means of gaining prestige and honor. Sources such as Germania and the wisdom poetry of The Exeter Book, as well as other early medieval literature all reflect this emphasis on magnanimity in Anglo-Saxon society. The concept of magnanimity is still relevant today, as we continue to value and admire leaders who are noble and generous, and individuals who are generous and open-handed. The concept of magnanimity in pre-Christian Anglo-Saxon society serves as a reminder of the importance of being noble and generous, not only as individuals but also as a community.
Scéadwísnes
Hæle sceal wisfæst
(86-7 Precepts)
ond gemetlice, modes snottor.
A man should be firm in wisdom and moderate, prudent in mind.
Prudence and wisdom were highly valued in pre-Christian Anglo-Saxon society, as evidenced by their frequent appearance in Old English literature and texts. One such text, Tacitus’ Germania, describes the Germanic tribes as possessing “wisdom beyond their years” and a “sober and serious mind” (Tacitus, 96). This emphasis on wisdom and prudence is also reflected in the Old English term Scéadwísnes, which translates to “shadow-wisdom” or “shadow-intelligence.” This term suggests that wisdom and prudence were seen as a necessary shield or protection in one’s life.
This emphasis on wisdom and prudence is also evident in the Exeter Book, a collection of Old English poetry. One poem in the Exeter Book, called “Maxims”, presents a series of moral and practical advice for living a virtuous life. The poem advises individuals to “speak little, listen much, and avoid evil” (Exeter Book, Maxims I). This demonstrates the importance placed on prudence and wisdom in Migration Age Germanic society, as it advises individuals to use caution and discernment in their actions and words. The Exeter Book also elucidates the importance of temperance. One poem, “The Seafarer“, reflects on the dangers of excess and the importance of self-control. The speaker of the poem states, “It is better to have wisdom and to be safe than to have wealth and to be lost” (The Exeter Book, ln. 61-62). This passage highlights the idea that wisdom and self-control are more valuable than material wealth.
The “Durham Proverbs” also emphasizes the importance of wisdom and prudence. The proverbs advise individuals to “keep yourself from strife” (Durham Proverbs, 1) and to “speak little, do much” (Durham Proverbs, 5). These proverbs stress the importance of using one’s words carefully and taking action thoughtfully, which aligns with the idea of prudence. Additionally, the proverbs advise individuals to “love wisdom, and she will exalt you” (Durham Proverbs, 8), which emphasizes the importance of wisdom and the value placed on it in pre-Christian Anglo-Saxon society.
Another source of potential interest, the Elder Edda, is a collection of Norse myths and legends that also emphasizes the importance of wisdom and prudence. One story, “The Lay of Fafnir”, tells of the dragon Fafnir who, after obtaining a cursed treasure, becomes consumed with greed and is ultimately killed by the hero Sigurd. The story serves as a cautionary tale about the dangers of greed and the importance of wisdom and prudence in avoiding such pitfalls.
Early medieval literature also reflects the importance of wisdom and prudence in pre-Christian Anglo-Saxon society. The story of Beowulf, for example, portrays the hero Beowulf as a wise and prudent leader who uses his wisdom and prudence to defeat the monsters Grendel and Grendel’s mother.
In modern society, the concepts of prudence and wisdom are still highly relevant. Prudence, the ability to make sound judgments, can be seen in the application of the precautionary principle in public policy-making, and in the concept of risk management in various areas of life. Wisdom, the ability to make sense of life experiences and to use this knowledge to make sound judgments, can be seen in the concept of emotional intelligence in the workplace, and in the development of critical thinking skills in education.
Sóþfæstnes
There is no disguise or affectation, but every man speaks as he thinks.
-Cornelius Tacitus, Germania
Candor and truthfulness were highly valued in pre-Christian Germanic society. Honesty and straightforwardness were seen as essential characteristics of a noble person, and that those who were perceived as deceitful or untrustworthy were often shunned and viewed with suspicion.
In his work Germania, Tacitus describes the Germanic tribes as being “remarkable for their candor” (Tacitus, chap. 4). He goes on to note that among the Germanic people, “there is no disguise or affectation, but every man speaks as he thinks” (Tacitus, chap. 4). This emphasis on candor is further reinforced by Tacitus’s observation that “no one is ashamed of speaking the truth” (Tacitus, chap. 4). The importance of candor in Germanic society is further reinforced by the fact that Tacitus notes that the Germanic people are “the most honest of barbarians” (Tacitus, chap. 4).
Medieval literature also reflects the importance of candor and truthfulness in Germanic society. In the Exeter Book, there is a poem titled “The Seafarer” that speaks of the importance of honesty and truthfulness in the lives of seafarers. The poem states that “a ship is best that is honest, and a man who is truthful shall have all men trust him” (Exeter Book, line 67). This passage highlights the connection between candor and trustworthiness in the eyes of the Germanic people.
The Elder Edda, a collection of Norse myths and legends, also reflects the importance of candor and truthfulness in Germanic society. In the poem “Hávamál”, the god Odin speaks of the importance of speaking the truth, stating that “a lie is most hateful to the gods” (Elder Edda, stanza 24). He goes on to say that “the man who speaks truth shall always win” (Elder Edda, stanza 24). This passage reinforces the idea that honesty and truthfulness were seen as essential characteristics of a noble person in Germanic society.
The importance of candor and truthfulness in pre-Christian Germanic society is also evident in the way that those who were perceived as deceitful or untrustworthy were punished or ostracized. For example, in the Exeter Book, there is a poem titled “The Wife’s Lament” in which the speaker describes how she was betrayed by her husband and how she is now an outcast in her community. The poem states that “now I am shunned by all men, for I am deemed a false wife” (Exeter Book, line 23).
